Thank you so much @burnout426
I have been struggling with this problem for an entire day and tried every complex solution imaginable (sfc, DISM, network reset, clean reinstallation, etc.). I can't believe the solution was this simple. 😲
Thanks to your suggestion, I installed the .NET 8.0 Desktop Runtime, and the issue was resolved instantly. You saved me from a huge headache, I'm very grateful! I hope this helps others who might be facing the same problem.